TABLE OF CONTENTS

TITLE PAGE        –         –         –         –         –         –         –         –         –          i

LIST OF GROUP MEMBERS  –         –         –         –         –         –         –          ii

TABLE OF CONTENTS –         –         –         –         –         –         –         –          iii-iv

CHAPTER ONE 

1.0     Introduction         –         –         –         –         –         –         –         –          1-2

CHAPTER TWO

2.0     FACTORS CONTRIBUTING TO VITAMIN D DEFICIENCY/INSUFFICIENCY IN THE

AGING ADULT  –         –         –         –         –         –         –         –          3       

2.1     Pathophysiology    –         –         –         –         –         –         –         –          3-4

2.2     Vitamin D Recommendations    –         –         –         –         –         –          5

CHAPTER THREE

3.0 VITAMIN D IN OLDER ADULT   

3.1     Side Effects of Taking Vitamin D       –         –         –         –         –          6

3.1.1  Psychological Aging       –         –         –         –         –         –         –          7

3.1.2  Cognitive Decline  –         –         –         –         –         –         –         –          7-11

3.1.3  Depression   –         –         –         –         –         –         –         –         –          11-13

3.1.4  Physical Aging      –         –         –         –         –         –         –         –          14

3.1.5  Osteoporosis          –         –         –         –         –         –         –         –          14-17

3.1.6  Cardiovascular Disease    –         –         –         –         –         –         –          18-20

3.1.7  Hypertension         –         –         –         –         –         –         –         –          20-21

3.1.8  Type 2 Diabetes     –         –         –         –         –         –         –         –          21-23

3.1.9  Immune Function  –         –         –         –         –         –         –         –          24

3.1.10 Cancer        –         –         –         –         –         –         –         –         –          24-25

CHAPTER FOUR

4.0 SUMMARY AND CONCLUSION

4.1     Summary     –         –         –         –         –         –         –         –         –          26

4.2     Conclusion  –         –         –         –         –         –         –         –         –          27

References

CHAPTER ONE

1.0 INTRODUCTION

Vitamin D plays a vital role in human health (Holick, 2010). Low levels of vitamin D can drastically impact a person’s physical and mental well-being (Holick, 2011;  Chan, and Woo, 2011). Traditionally, research focused on the role of vitamin D in the maintenance of skeletal health. In recent years, following the discovery of vitamin D receptors throughout the body, its role in the prevention and treatment of chronic diseases has become an important area of study. Vitamin D deficiency has been linked to various health problems, including cognitive decline, depression, osteoporosis, cardiovascular disease, hypertension, diabetes, and cancer (Hossein-nezhad, and  Holick, 2013; Holick, 2011). As persons age, the risk for vitamin D deficiency significantly increases. The percent of older adults suffering from vitamin D deficiency ranges from 20 to 100% in the United States (US) (Holick, et al., 2011). Risk factors contributing to vitamin D deficiency in older adults include reduced nutritional intake of vitamin D, increasing adiposity, decreased cutaneous synthesis of vitamin D, and less time spent outdoors (Cesari  et al., 2011; Chan, and Woo, 2011) . The number of individuals aged 65 and older is expected to more than double from 2012 to 2060 (U.S. Census, 2012). Thus, understanding the relationship between vitamin D and chronic diseases in the older adult and whether treatment of vitamin D deficiency can prevent or ameliorate these disorders is important. This paper highlights the current evidence regarding the role that vitamin D may play in diseases associated with aging and also addresses the need for randomized clinical trials (RCTs) examining the impact of vitamin D on the prevention and treatment of these diseases in the older.