TABLE OF CONTENTS

Title Page    –         –         –         –         –         –         –         –         –         i

Certification –         –         –         –         –         –         –         –         –         ii

Dedication   –         –         –         –         –         –         –         –         –         iii

Acknowledgements-        –         –         –         –         –         –         –         iv

Table of Contents  –         –         –         –         –         –         –         –         v

CHAPTER ONE: INTRODUCTION        –         –         –         –         1

CHAPTER TWO: BLOOD CELLS –         –         –         –         –         4

2.1     White blood cells   –         –         –         –         –         –         –         5

2.2     Lymphocytes         –         –         –         –         –         –         –         6

2.2.1  Characteristics of Lymphocytes           –         –         –         –         7

2.2.2 Types and Functions of Lymphocytes           –         –         –         8

2.2.3 Development of Lymphocytes   –         –         –         –         –         11

2.3     Classification of Lymphoid Leukemia –         –         –         –         13

2.4     Chronic Lymphocytic Leukemia          –         –         –         –         16

2.4.1 Signs and Symptoms of Chronic Lymphocytic Leukemia –         18

2.4.2 Causes of Chronic Lymphocytic Leukemia   –         –         –         20

2.5     Acute Lymphoblastic Leukemia          –         –         –         –         21

2.5.1 Signs and Symptoms of Acute Lymphoblastic Leukemia  –         25

2.5.2 Causes of acute lymphoblastic leukemia        –         –         –         27

CHAPTER THREE: THE ROLE LYMPHOCYTES IN THE DIAGNOSIS OF LYMPHOCYTIC LEUKEMIAS      –         –         28

3.1     Lymphocytes and Disease          –         –         –         –         –         28

3.2     Diagnosis of Lymphocytic Leukemias –         –         –         –         30

3.3     Blood Test for Diagnosis of Lymphocytic Leukemias       –         39

3.4     Treatment of Lymphocytic Leukemias –         –         –         –         40

3.5     Prevention of Lymphocytic Leukemias          –         –         –         43

CHAPTER FOUR: SUMMARY AND CONCLUSION

4.1     Summary     –         –         –         –         –         –         –         –         44

4.2     Conclusion  –         –         –         –         –         –         –         –         45

References

CHAPTER ONE: INTRODUCTION

Lymphocytes play fundamental role in the immune system due to their influence on immune responses to infectious microorganisms and other foreign substances. They provide a specific response to attack by invading micro-organisms (Blum et al., 2013), protection against tumors such as multiple myeloma as well as cause rejection of tissues following organ transplants as the perceive these tissues as foreign invaders. They occur in blood and lymph (The colorless fluid in the lymphatic vessels that connect the lymph nodes in the body to each other through the blood stream) (Murphy, 2012). They also occur in lymphoid organs, such as the thymus, lymph nodes, spleen and appendix (in man).

Blood is circulated around the body through blood vessels by the pumping action of the heart. It is a body fluid in the circulatory system of humans and other vertebrates that delivers necessary substances such as nutrients and oxygen to the cells, and transport metabolic waste products away from those same cells (Boron and Boulpaep, 2017). The major  types   of  blood   cells

include Red blood cells (erythrocytes), White blood cells (leukocytes), and Platelets (thrombocytes).

Lymphoid Leukemias are a group of leukemias affecting circulating lymphocytes, a type of white blood cell. The lymphocytic leukemias are closely related to lymphomas of the lymphocytes, to the point that some of them are unitary disease entities that can be called by either name (for example, adult T-Cell Leukemia/Lymphoma). Such diseases are called lymphoproliferative disorders. Most lymphoid leukemias involve a particular subtype of lymphocytes, the B cells (Mitchell et al., 2007).

Chronic Lymphocytic Leukemia affected 904,000 people globally in 2015 and resulted in 60,700 deaths (Wang et al., 2016). In 2021, the estimated incidence of chronic lymphocytic leukemia in the United States is 21,250 new cases and 4,320 deaths. The disease most commonly occurs in people over the age of 65, due to the accumulation of genetic mutations that occur over time. Men are diagnosed around twice as often as women (6.8 to 3.5 ratio) (Grywalska et al., 2020). It is much less common in people from Asia. Five – year survival following diagnosis is approximately 83% in the United States. It represents less than 1% of deaths from cancer. Chronic lymphocytic leukemia (CLL) is a type of cancer in which the bone marrow makes too many lymphocytes (a type of white blood cells) (Boelens et al., 2009).

Acute Lymphoblastic Leukemia affected about 876,000 people globally in 2015 and resulted in about 111,000 deaths (Wang et al., 2016). It occurs most commonly in children, particularly those between the ages of two and five (Inaba et al., 2013). In the United States it is the most common cause of cancer and death from cancer among children (Hunger and Mullighan, 2015). Acute lymphoblastic leukemia is notable for being the first disseminated cancer to be cured. Survival for children increased from under 10% in the 1960s to 2015. Survival rate remain lower for babies (50%) and adults (35%) (Paul et al., 2016).  Acute lymphoblastic leukemia (ALL) is a cancer of the lymphoid line of blood cells characterized by the development of large numbers of immature lymphocytes.